Most Software Programs Can Both Save and Retrieve Data in a(N) _______ File Format.

Computer application for organization, assay, and storage of data in tabular form

A spreadsheet is a calculator application for ciphering, organization, analysis and storage of data in tabular course.^{[1] [2] [3]} Spreadsheets were developed as computerized analogs of newspaper accounting worksheets.^[4] The program operates on data entered in cells of a table. Each prison cell may contain either numeric or text data, or the results of formulas that automatically calculate and display a value based on the contents of other cells. A spreadsheet may also refer to one such electronic certificate.^{[five] [6] [7]}

Spreadsheet users can conform any stored value and notice the furnishings on calculated values. This makes the spreadsheet useful for "what-if" analysis since many cases tin be rapidly investigated without manual recalculation. Modern spreadsheet software can accept multiple interacting sheets and can display information either as text and numerals or in graphical course.

Besides performing basic arithmetic and mathematical functions, modern spreadsheets provide built-in functions for common fiscal accountancy and statistical operations. Such calculations every bit net nowadays value or standard divergence can be applied to tabular data with a pre-programmed office in a formula. Spreadsheet programs likewise provide conditional expressions, functions to convert between text and numbers, and functions that operate on strings of text.

Spreadsheets accept replaced paper-based systems throughout the business globe. Although they were first developed for bookkeeping or bookkeeping tasks, they now are used extensively in any context where tabular lists are built, sorted, and shared.

Basics [edit]

LANPAR, available in 1969,^[eight] was the showtime electronic spreadsheet on mainframe and time sharing computers. LANPAR was an acronym: Linguistic communication for Programming Arrays at Random.^[8] VisiCalc (1979) was the kickoff electronic spreadsheet on a microcomputer,^[9] and it helped turn the Apple Ii estimator into a popular and widely used system. Lotus one-2-3 was the leading spreadsheet when DOS was the dominant operating system.^[ten] Microsoft Excel at present has the largest market share on the Windows and Macintosh platforms.^{[11] [12] [13]} A spreadsheet program is a standard characteristic of an role productivity suite; since the advent of spider web apps, office suites now also be in web app form.

A spreadsheet consists of a tabular array of cells arranged into rows and columns and referred to past the X and Y locations. X locations, the columns, are normally represented by messages, "A," "B," "C," etc., while rows are ordinarily represented past numbers, 1, 2, 3, etc. A single cell can be referred to by addressing its row and column, "C10". This electronic concept of cell references was first introduced in LANPAR (Language for Programming Arrays at Random) (co-invented past Rene Pardo and Remy Landau) and a variant used in VisiCalc and known as "A1 note". Additionally, spreadsheets have the concept of a range, a group of cells, normally contiguous. For instance, one can refer to the start ten cells in the get-go cavalcade with the range "A1:A10". LANPAR innovated forward referencing/natural order adding which didn't re-appear until Lotus 123 and Microsoft'south MultiPlan Version ii.

In modern spreadsheet applications, several spreadsheets, oft known every bit worksheets or simply sheets, are gathered together to form a workbook. A workbook is physically represented by a file containing all the data for the book, the sheets, and the cells with the sheets. Worksheets are normally represented by tabs that flip betwixt pages, each one containing ane of the sheets, although Numbers changes this model significantly. Cells in a multi-canvas book add together the canvass name to their reference, for instance, "Sheet 1!C10". Some systems extend this syntax to let cell references to different workbooks.

Users interact with sheets primarily through the cells. A given cell tin agree data by simply inbound it in, or a formula, which is normally created by preceding the text with an equals sign. Data might include the string of text hello earth, the number 5 or the date 16-December-91. A formula would begin with the equals sign, =5*3, only this would normally exist invisible because the display shows the event of the adding, 15 in this case, non the formula itself. This may lead to confusion in some cases.

The key feature of spreadsheets is the ability for a formula to refer to the contents of other cells, which may, in turn, exist the result of a formula. To make such a formula, one replaces a number with a cell reference. For instance, the formula =v*C10 would produce the result of multiplying the value in jail cell C10 by the number 5. If C10 holds the value 3 the result volition be fifteen. But C10 might as well concord its formula referring to other cells, so on.

The power to chain formulas together is what gives a spreadsheet its power. Many problems can be cleaved down into a series of individual mathematical steps, and these can be assigned to individual formulas in cells. Some of these formulas can employ to ranges every bit well, similar the SUM function that adds up all the numbers within a range.

Spreadsheets share many principles and traits of databases, simply spreadsheets and databases are not the same things. A spreadsheet is substantially just one table, whereas a database is a collection of many tables with automobile-readable semantic relationships. While it is true that a workbook that contains iii sheets is indeed a file containing multiple tables that tin can interact with each other, it lacks the relational structure of a database. Spreadsheets and databases are interoperable—sheets tin be imported into databases to become tables within them, and database queries can be exported into spreadsheets for further assay.

A spreadsheet program is one of the main components of an office productivity suite, which usually also contains a give-and-take processor, a presentation program, and a database management system. Programs inside a suite use similar commands for similar functions. Normally, sharing information between the components is easier than with a non-integrated collection of functionally equivalent programs. This was peculiarly an reward at a fourth dimension when many personal computer systems used text-style displays and commands instead of a graphical user interface.

History [edit]

Newspaper spreadsheets [edit]

The word "spreadsheet" came from "spread" in its sense of a newspaper or mag detail (text or graphics) that covers two facing pages, extending across the centerfold and treating the two pages equally one big folio. The compound give-and-take 'spread-sheet' came to mean the format used to present book-keeping ledgers—with columns for categories of expenditures across the peak, invoices listed down the left margin, and the amount of each payment in the cell where its row and column intersect—which were, traditionally, a "spread" across facing pages of a bound ledger (book for keeping bookkeeping records) or on oversized sheets of newspaper (termed 'analysis paper') ruled into rows and columns in that format and approximately twice every bit broad equally ordinary paper.^[14]

Early on implementations [edit]

Batch spreadsheet study generator BSRG [edit]

A batch "spreadsheet" is indistinguishable from a batch compiler with added input information, producing an output report, i.east., a 4GL or conventional, non-interactive, batch computer program. All the same, this concept of an electronic spreadsheet was outlined in the 1961 paper "Budgeting Models and System Simulation" by Richard Mattessich.^[15] The subsequent work by Mattessich (1964a, Chpt. 9, Bookkeeping and Belittling Methods) and its companion book, Mattessich (1964b, Simulation of the Firm through a Budget Computer Program) practical computerized spreadsheets to accounting and budgeting systems (on mainframe computers programmed in FORTRAN IV). These batch Spreadsheets dealt primarily with the improver or subtraction of entire columns or rows (of input variables), rather than individual cells.

In 1962, this concept of the spreadsheet, called BCL for Business Computer Language, was implemented on an IBM 1130^{[ dubious – discuss ]} and in 1963 was ported to an IBM 7040 by R. Brian Walsh at Marquette University, Wisconsin. This programme was written in Fortran. Primitive timesharing was available on those machines. In 1968 BCL was ported past Walsh to the IBM 360/67 timesharing machine at Washington State University. It was used to aid in the pedagogy of finance to business students. Students were able to take information prepared by the professor and dispense it to correspond it and bear witness ratios etc. In 1964, a book entitled Business organization Figurer Language was written by Kimball, Stoffells and Walsh and both the volume and program were copyrighted in 1966 and years afterward that copyright was renewed.^[16]

Applied Data Resources had a FORTRAN preprocessor called Empires.

In the late 1960s, Xerox used BCL to develop a more sophisticated version for their timesharing system.

LANPAR spreadsheet compiler [edit]

A key invention in the development of electronic spreadsheets was made by Rene Grand. Pardo and Remy Landau, who filed in 1970 U.S. Patent 4,398,249 on a spreadsheet automatic natural order calculation algorithm. While the patent was initially rejected by the patent office as beingness a purely mathematical invention, following 12 years of appeals, Pardo and Landau won a landmark court example at the Predecessor Court of the Federal Excursion (CCPA), overturning the Patent Office in 1983 — establishing that "something does not stop to get patentable merely considering the point of novelty is in an algorithm." However, in 1995 the United states Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled the patent unenforceable.^[17]

The actual software was called LANPAR — LANguage for Programming Arrays at Random.^{[note 1]} This was conceived and entirely developed in the summertime of 1969, post-obit Pardo and Landau's contempo graduation from Harvard University. Co-inventor Rene Pardo recalls that he felt that one manager at Bell Canada should not accept to depend on programmers to plan and modify budgeting forms, and he thought of letting users type out forms in any social club and having an electronic calculator summate results in the right order ("Forward Referencing/Natural Order Adding"). Pardo and Landau developed and implemented the software in 1969.^[18]

LANPAR was used past Bell Canada, AT&T, and the 18 operating phone companies nationwide for their local and national budgeting operations. LANPAR was also used by General Motors. Its uniqueness was Pardo's co-invention incorporating forward referencing/natural order calculation (ane of the first "not-procedural" computer languages)^[nineteen] as opposed to left-to-right, peak to bottom sequence for calculating the results in each jail cell that was used past VisiCalc, SuperCalc, and the first version of MultiPlan. Without forward referencing/natural order calculation, the user had to refresh the spreadsheet until the values in all cells remained unchanged. Once the cell values stayed abiding, the user was assured that there were no remaining forward references within the spreadsheet.

Autoplan/Autotab spreadsheet programming linguistic communication [edit]

In 1968, three former employees from the General Electric computer company headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona set out to commencement their ain software development house. A. Leroy Ellison, Harry N. Cantrell, and Russell Eastward. Edwards found themselves doing a large number of calculations when making tables for the concern plans that they were presenting to venture capitalists. They decided to salve themselves a lot of endeavor and wrote a computer program that produced their tables for them. This plan, originally conceived every bit a simple utility for their personal use, would turn out to exist the first software product offered past the company that would become known as Capex Corporation. "AutoPlan" ran on GE'southward Time-sharing service; afterward, a version that ran on IBM mainframes was introduced under the proper name AutoTab. (National CSS offered a similar product, CSSTAB, which had a moderate timesharing user base by the early 1970s. A major application was opinion research tabulation.)

AutoPlan/AutoTab was not a WYSIWYG interactive spreadsheet program, it was a simple scripting language for spreadsheets. The user-divers the names and labels for the rows and columns, and so the formulas that defined each row or column. In 1975, Autotab-II was advertised equally extending the original to a maximum of "1,500 rows and columns, combined in whatever proportion the user requires..."^[twenty]

GE Information Services, which operated the fourth dimension-sharing service, also launched its own spreadsheet arrangement, Financial Analysis Language (FAL), circa 1974. It was later supplemented by an boosted spreadsheet language, TABOL,^{[21] [22]} which was developed past an independent author, Oliver Vellacott in the UK. Both FAL and TABOL were integrated with GEIS's database system, DMS.

IBM Financial Planning and Control System [edit]

The IBM Financial Planning and Control System was adult in 1976, past Brian Ingham at IBM Canada. It was implemented by IBM in at least 30 countries. Information technology ran on an IBM mainframe and was among the outset applications for financial planning adult with APL that completely hid the programming language from the end-user. Through IBM's VM operating organization, it was amongst the get-go programs to motorcar-update each copy of the awarding as new versions were released. Users could specify unproblematic mathematical relationships between rows and between columns. Compared to any contemporary alternatives, it could back up very large spreadsheets. Information technology loaded actual financial planning data drawn from the legacy batch system into each user's spreadsheet monthly. It was designed to optimize the ability of APL through object kernels, increasing plan efficiency by every bit much as 50 fold over traditional programming approaches.

APLDOT modeling linguistic communication [edit]

An instance of an early on "industrial weight" spreadsheet was APLDOT, developed in 1976 at the Us Railway Association on an IBM 360/91, running at The Johns Hopkins Academy Practical Physics Laboratory in Laurel, MD.^[23] The application was used successfully for many years in developing such applications as financial and costing models for the US Congress and for Conrail. APLDOT was dubbed a "spreadsheet" because financial analysts and strategic planners used it to solve the same bug they addressed with paper spreadsheet pads.

VisiCalc [edit]

VisiCalc running on an Apple tree Two

Because Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston implemented VisiCalc on the Apple 2 in 1979 and the IBM PC in 1981, the spreadsheet concept became widely known in the early 1980s. VisiCalc was the first spreadsheet that combined all essential features of modernistic spreadsheet applications (except for forward referencing/natural club recalculation), such as WYSIWYG interactive user interface, automatic recalculation, status and formula lines, range copying with relative and absolute references, formula building by selecting referenced cells. Unaware of LANPAR at the time PC World magazine called VisiCalc the beginning electronic spreadsheet.^[24]

Bricklin has spoken of watching his university professor create a table of calculation results on a blackboard. When the professor found an error, he had to tediously erase and rewrite several sequential entries in the table, triggering Bricklin to remember that he could replicate the process on a estimator, using the blackboard every bit the model to view results of underlying formulas. His thought became VisiCalc, the first application that turned the personal computer from a hobby for computer enthusiasts into a business concern tool.

VisiCalc went on to become the first "killer application",^{[25] [26]} an application that was so compelling, people would buy a particular computer but to use it. VisiCalc was in no small part responsible for the Apple Ii's success. The programme was later ported to a number of other early computers, notably CP/M machines, the Atari 8-flake family and diverse Commodore platforms. Nonetheless, VisiCalc remains best known every bit an Apple II plan.

SuperCalc [edit]

SuperCalc was a spreadsheet awarding published past Sorcim in 1980, and originally bundled (forth with WordStar) as function of the CP/M software package included with the Osborne 1 portable computer. It quickly became the de facto standard spreadsheet for CP/M and was ported to MS-DOS in 1982.

Lotus 1-2-3 and other MS-DOS spreadsheets [edit]

The credence of the IBM PC following its introduction in August 1981, began slowly because most of the programs bachelor for it were translations from other figurer models. Things changed dramatically with the introduction of Lotus 1-2-three in November 1982, and release for sale in January 1983. Since information technology was written especially for the IBM PC, it had a skilful functioning and became the killer app for this PC. Lotus 1-ii-3 drove sales of the PC due to the improvements in speed and graphics compared to VisiCalc on the Apple tree II.^[27]

Lotus 1-2-iii, forth with its competitor Borland Quattro, before long displaced VisiCalc. Lotus i-2-3 was released on January 26, 1983, started outselling and then-nigh-popular VisiCalc the very same twelvemonth, and for several years was the leading spreadsheet for DOS.

Microsoft Excel [edit]

Microsoft released the outset version of Excel for the Macintosh on September thirty, 1985, and so ported^[28] it to Windows, with the get-go version being numbered 2.05 (to synchronize with the Macintosh version 2.two) and released in November 1987. The Windows iii.x platforms of the early 1990s made information technology possible for Excel to take market share from Lotus. By the time Lotus responded with usable Windows products, Microsoft had begun to assemble their Office suite. By 1995, Excel was the market leader, edging out Lotus 1-2-three,^[fourteen] and in 2013, IBM discontinued Lotus one-two-iii altogether.^[29]

Spider web-based spreadsheets [edit]

Notable current web-based spreadsheet software:

• Collabora Online Calc is a free, open-source and cross-platform enterprise-ready edition of LibreOffice.
• Google Sheets
• Microsoft Excel Online

Mainframe spreadsheets [edit]

• The Works Records Arrangement at ICI developed in 1974 on IBM 370/145^[30]

Other spreadsheets [edit]

Notable current spreadsheet software:

• Apache OpenOffice Calc is a gratis and open-source.
• Calligra Sheets (formerly KCalc)
• Collabora Online Calc for mobile and desktop apps are free, open-source, cantankerous-platform enterprise-ready editions of LibreOffice.
• Corel Quattro Pro (WordPerfect Office)
• Gnumeric is free and cantankerous-platform, it is office of the GNOME Free Software Desktop Project.
• Kingsoft Spreadsheets
• LibreOffice Calc is free, open-source and cross platform, .
• NeoOffice
• Numbers is Apple tree Inc.'s spreadsheet software, office of iWork.
• PlanMaker (SoftMaker Office)
• Pyspread

Discontinued spreadsheet software:

• 20/20
• 3D-Calc for Atari ST computers
• Framework past Forefront Corporation/Ashton-Tate (1983–84)
• GNU Oleo – A traditional concluding style spreadsheet for UNIX/UNIX-like systems
• IBM Lotus Symphony (2007)
• Javelin Software
• KCells
• Lucid iii-D
• Lotus Improv^[31]
• Lotus Jazz for Macintosh
• Lotus Symphony (1984)
• MultiPlan
• Claris' Resolve (Macintosh)
• Resolver One
• Borland's Quattro Pro
• SIAG
• SuperCalc
• T/Maker
• Target Planner Calc for CP/Thou and TRS-DOS^{[32] [33]}
• Trapeze for Macintosh^[34]
• Wingz for Macintosh

Other products [edit]

Several companies take attempted to intermission into the spreadsheet market place with programs based on very different paradigms. Lotus introduced what is probable the nearly successful case, Lotus Improv, which saw some commercial success, notably in the fiscal world where its powerful data mining capabilities remain well respected to this twenty-four hour period.

Spreadsheet 2000 attempted to dramatically simplify formula construction, but was generally not successful.

Concepts [edit]

The main concepts are those of a grid of cells, chosen a sheet, with either raw data, called values, or formulas in the cells. Formulas say how to mechanically compute new values from existing values. Values are general numbers, merely can also be pure text, dates, months, etc. Extensions of these concepts include logical spreadsheets. Various tools for programming sheets, visualizing information, remotely connecting sheets, displaying cells' dependencies, etc. are commonly provided.

Cells [edit]

A "cell" tin can exist thought of as a box for belongings data. A single cell is ordinarily referenced past its column and row (C2 would represent the jail cell containing the value 30 in the example table beneath). Ordinarily rows, representing the dependent variables, are referenced in decimal notation starting from 1, while columns representing the independent variables use 26-adic bijective numeration using the letters A-Z equally numerals. Its physical size can ordinarily be tailored to its content by dragging its height or width at box intersections (or for entire columns or rows by dragging the column- or row-headers).

My Spreadsheet

	A	B	C	D
01	Sales	100000	30000	70000
02	Purchases	25490	30	200

An assortment of cells is called a canvas or worksheet. Information technology is analogous to an assortment of variables in a conventional reckoner program (although certain unchanging values, once entered, could be considered, past the same illustration, constants). In most implementations, many worksheets may be located within a unmarried spreadsheet. A worksheet is merely a subset of the spreadsheet divided for the sake of clarity. Functionally, the spreadsheet operates as a whole and all cells operate as global variables within the spreadsheet (each variable having 'read' admission only except its containing jail cell).

A cell may incorporate a value or a formula, or information technology may simply be left empty. By convention, formulas commonly brainstorm with = sign.

Values [edit]

A value can be entered from the computer keyboard by straight typing into the cell itself. Alternatively, a value tin can be based on a formula (see below), which might perform a calculation, display the current engagement or time, or recollect external information such as a stock quote or a database value.

The Spreadsheet Value Rule

Calculator scientist Alan Kay used the term value dominion to summarize a spreadsheet's performance: a cell'southward value relies solely on the formula the user has typed into the cell.^[35] The formula may rely on the value of other cells, merely those cells are likewise restricted to user-entered information or formulas. At that place are no 'side effects' to calculating a formula: the only output is to display the calculated result inside its occupying cell. There is no natural mechanism for permanently modifying the contents of a jail cell unless the user manually modifies the jail cell's contents. In the context of programming languages, this yields a limited course of starting time-gild functional programming.^[36]

Automatic recalculation [edit]

A standard of spreadsheets since the 1980s, this optional feature eliminates the need to manually request the spreadsheet program to recalculate values (nowadays typically the default option unless specifically 'switched off' for large spreadsheets, usually to improve performance). Some earlier spreadsheets required a manual asking to recalculate since the recalculation of large or complex spreadsheets often reduced data entry speed. Many modern spreadsheets still retain this option.

Recalculation generally requires that at that place are no circular dependencies in a spreadsheet. A dependency graph is a graph that has a vertex for each object to be updated, and an edge connecting 2 objects whenever one of them needs to exist updated earlier than the other. Dependency graphs without circular dependencies form directed acyclic graphs, representations of partial orderings (in this case, across a spreadsheet) that can be relied upon to give a definite issue.^[37]

Real-fourth dimension update [edit]

This feature refers to updating a jail cell's contents periodically with a value from an external source—such as a cell in a "remote" spreadsheet. For shared, Web-based spreadsheets, it applies to "immediately" updating cells another user has updated. All dependent cells must be updated also.

Locked prison cell [edit]

Once entered, selected cells (or the entire spreadsheet) tin can optionally be "locked" to foreclose adventitious overwriting. Typically this would apply to cells containing formulas merely might apply to cells containing "constants" such as a kilogram/pounds conversion factor (ii.20462262 to 8 decimal places). Even though individual cells are marked as locked, the spreadsheet information are non protected until the feature is activated in the file preferences.

Information format [edit]

A cell or range can optionally exist defined to specify how the value is displayed. The default brandish format is ordinarily fix past its initial content if non specifically previously set, so that for example "31/12/2007" or "31 Dec 2007" would default to the cell format of date. Similarly calculation a % sign after a numeric value would tag the prison cell as a percent cell format. The cell contents are non changed by this format, but the displayed value.

Some prison cell formats such as "numeric" or "currency" can too specify the number of decimal places.

This can allow invalid operations (such as doing multiplication on a cell containing a appointment), resulting in illogical results without an advisable warning.

Cell formatting [edit]

Depending on the capability of the spreadsheet awarding, each prison cell (like its counterpart the "mode" in a word processor) can be separately formatted using the attributes of either the content (point size, colour, bold or italic) or the cell (border thickness, background shading, colour). To help the readability of a spreadsheet, prison cell formatting may exist conditionally applied to data; for example, a negative number may be displayed in carmine.

A cell'south formatting does not typically touch its content and depending on how cells are referenced or copied to other worksheets or applications, the formatting may not be carried with the content.

Named cells [edit]

Use of named column variables x & y in Microsoft Excel. Formula for y=x² resembles Fortran, and Proper noun Manager shows the definitions of x & y.

In most implementations, a cell, or group of cells in a column or row, can exist "named" enabling the user to refer to those cells past a name rather than by a filigree reference. Names must exist unique within the spreadsheet, but when using multiple sheets in a spreadsheet file, an identically named cell range on each sheet tin can be used if it is distinguished by adding the sheet name. I reason for this usage is for creating or running macros that echo a control across many sheets. Another reason is that formulas with named variables are readily checked against the algebra they are intended to implement (they resemble Fortran expressions). The utilize of named variables and named functions also makes the spreadsheet structure more transparent.

Prison cell reference [edit]

In place of a named cell, an culling approach is to use a cell (or grid) reference. Most prison cell references indicate some other cell in the same spreadsheet, but a prison cell reference tin can also refer to a cell in a different canvas within the same spreadsheet, or (depending on the implementation) to a prison cell in some other spreadsheet entirely, or a value from a remote application.

A typical jail cell reference in "A1" style consists of ane or two case-insensitive messages to identify the column (if there are up to 256 columns: A–Z and AA–IV) followed by a row number (eastward.m., in the range i–65536). Either part tin can exist relative (information technology changes when the formula it is in is moved or copied), or absolute (indicated with $ in front of the part concerned of the jail cell reference). The alternative "R1C1" reference style consists of the letter of the alphabet R, the row number, the letter C, and the cavalcade number; relative row or column numbers are indicated by enclosing the number in square brackets. Almost current spreadsheets use the A1 style, some providing the R1C1 style every bit a compatibility option.

When the computer calculates a formula in one cell to update the displayed value of that cell, jail cell reference(s) in that cell, naming some other jail cell(s), causes the computer to fetch the value of the named prison cell(s).

A cell on the same "sheet" is usually addressed equally:

=A1        

A prison cell on a different sheet of the aforementioned spreadsheet is usually addressed as:

=SHEET2!A1             (that is; the offset cell in sheet 2 of the same spreadsheet).        

Some spreadsheet implementations in Excel let jail cell references to another spreadsheet (not the currently open and active file) on the same reckoner or a local network. Information technology may also refer to a cell in some other open and active spreadsheet on the same figurer or network that is defined every bit shareable. These references incorporate the complete filename, such equally:

='C:\Documents and Settings\Username\My spreadsheets\[primary sail]Sheet1!A1        

In a spreadsheet, references to cells automatically update when new rows or columns are inserted or deleted. Intendance must be taken, however, when adding a row immediately before a set of cavalcade totals to ensure that the totals reflect the values of the additional rows—which they ofttimes do not.

A circular reference occurs when the formula in 1 cell refers—direct, or indirectly through a chain of jail cell references—to some other cell that refers back to the first cell. Many mutual errors cause circular references. Yet, some valid techniques apply circular references. These techniques, after many spreadsheet recalculations, (usually) converge on the correct values for those cells.

Jail cell ranges [edit]

Likewise, instead of using a named range of cells, a range reference tin be used. Reference to a range of cells is typical of the grade (A1:A6), which specifies all the cells in the range A1 through to A6. A formula such as "=SUM(A1:A6)" would add together all the cells specified and put the upshot in the cell containing the formula itself.

Sheets [edit]

In the primeval spreadsheets, cells were a simple ii-dimensional filigree. Over time, the model has expanded to include a third dimension, and in some cases a serial of named grids, called sheets. The most advanced examples let inversion and rotation operations which can slice and projection the information ready in various means.

Formulas [edit]

Animation of a simple spreadsheet that multiplies values in the left column by two, then sums the calculated values from the correct column to the bottom-virtually cell. In this example, only the values in the A cavalcade are entered (ten, 20, 30), and the remainder of cells are formulas. Formulas in the B cavalcade multiply values from the A column using relative references, and the formula in B4 uses the SUM() function to find the sum of values in the B1:B3 range.

A formula identifies the calculation needed to place the effect in the jail cell it is contained within. A cell containing a formula, therefore, has two brandish components; the formula itself and the resulting value. The formula is normally only shown when the cell is selected by "clicking" the mouse over a particular prison cell; otherwise, it contains the result of the adding.

A formula assigns values to a cell or range of cells, and typically has the format:

where the expression consists of:

• values, such equally 2, nine.14 or 6.67E-xi;
• references to other cells, such every bit, e.g., A1 for a single prison cell or B1:B3 for a range;
• arithmetic operators, such equally +, -, *, /, and others;
• relational operators, such as >=, <, and others; and,
• functions, such as SUM(), TAN(), and many others.

When a cell contains a formula, it often contains references to other cells. Such a cell reference is a type of variable. Its value is the value of the referenced prison cell or some derivation of information technology. If that cell in turn references other cells, the value depends on the values of those. References tin be relative (e.thousand., A1, or B1:B3), absolute (due east.g., $A$ane, or $B$ane:$B$three) or mixed row– or cavalcade-wise absolute/relative (east.g., $A1 is column-wise accented and A$1 is row-wise absolute).

The available options for valid formulas depend on the detail spreadsheet implementation but, in general, well-nigh arithmetic operations and quite circuitous nested conditional operations tin can be performed past nigh of today'due south commercial spreadsheets. Modern implementations also offer functions to access custom-build functions, remote data, and applications.

A formula may contain a condition (or nested atmospheric condition)—with or without an bodily adding—and is sometimes used purely to identify and highlight errors. In the example below, information technology is assumed the sum of a column of percentages (A1 through A6) is tested for validity and an explicit message put into the adjacent right-hand cell.

=IF(SUM(A1:A6) > 100, "More than 100%", SUM(A1:A6))

Further examples:

=IF(AND(A1<>"",B1<>""),A1/B1,"") means that if both cells A1 and B1 are not <> empty "", so carve up A1 by B1 and display, other do not display anything.

=IF(AND(A1<>"",B1<>""),IF(B1<>0,A1/B1,"Partitioning past nothing"),"") means that if cells A1 and B1 are not empty, and B1 is non zero, then divide A1 by B1, if B1 is zero, so brandish "Partitioning by zip", and do not display annihilation if either A1 and B1 are empty.

=IF(OR(A1<>"",B1<>""),"Either A1 or B1 evidence text","") means to display the text if either cells A1 or B1 are not empty.

The best style to build upward conditional statements is footstep by step composing followed by trial and mistake testing and refining code.

A spreadsheet does not take to contain any formulas at all, in which case it could be considered merely a drove of data arranged in rows and columns (a database) like a agenda, timetable, or elementary list. Because of its ease of utilize, formatting, and hyperlinking capabilities, many spreadsheets are used solely for this purpose.

Functions [edit]

Spreadsheets unremarkably contain several supplied functions, such as arithmetic operations (for example, summations, averages, and so along), trigonometric functions, statistical functions, and so along. In addition there is often a provision for user-defined functions. In Microsoft Excel, these functions are defined using Visual Bones for Applications in the supplied Visual Basic editor, and such functions are automatically attainable on the worksheet. Also, programs can exist written that pull information from the worksheet, perform some calculations, and report the results dorsum to the worksheet. In the figure, the proper name sq is user-assigned, and the role sq is introduced using the Visual Basic editor supplied with Excel. Name Manager displays the spreadsheet definitions of named variables 10 & y.

Subroutines [edit]

Functions themselves cannot write into the worksheet but only return their evaluation. However, in Microsoft Excel, subroutines can write values or text found within the subroutine directly to the spreadsheet. The figure shows the Visual Basic code for a subroutine that reads each member of the named column variable x, calculates its foursquare, and writes this value into the corresponding element of named column variable y. The y column contains no formula because its values are calculated in the subroutine, not on the spreadsheet, and but are written in.

Remote spreadsheet [edit]

Whenever a reference is made to a jail cell or group of cells that are non located within the current physical spreadsheet file, it is considered as accessing a "remote" spreadsheet. The contents of the referenced cell may be accessed either on the first reference with a manual update or more recently in the case of web-based spreadsheets, as a near real-time value with a specified automatic refresh interval.

Charts [edit]

Graph made using Microsoft Excel

Many spreadsheet applications let charts and graphs (e.thou., histograms, pie charts) to be generated from specified groups of cells that are dynamically re-built every bit prison cell contents change. The generated graphic component tin either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate object. To create an Excel histogram, a formula based on the REPT part tin be used.^[38]

Multi-dimensional spreadsheets [edit]

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, first Javelin Software and Lotus Improv appeared. Dissimilar models in a conventional spreadsheet, they utilized models congenital on objects called variables, not on data in cells of a report. These multi-dimensional spreadsheets enabled viewing information and algorithms in various self-documenting means, including simultaneous multiple synchronized views. For case, users of Javelin could move through the connections between variables on a diagram while seeing the logical roots and branches of each variable. This is an example of what is maybe its master contribution of the earlier Javelin—the concept of traceability of a user'south logic or model structure through its twelve views. A circuitous model can be dissected and understood past others who had no role in its creation.

In these programs, a time series, or any variable, was an object in itself, not a collection of cells that happen to announced in a row or column. Variables could have many attributes, including complete sensation of their connections to all other variables, information references, and text and image notes. Calculations were performed on these objects, as opposed to a range of cells, then adding two-time series automatically aligns them in calendar time, or in a user-defined time frame. Information were independent of worksheets—variables, and therefore data, could non be destroyed by deleting a row, cavalcade, or entire worksheet. For instance, January's costs are subtracted from January's revenues, regardless of where or whether either appears in a worksheet. This permits actions later used in pivot tables, except that flexible manipulation of report tables, was merely 1 of many capabilities supported past variables. Moreover, if costs were entered by week and revenues by month, the program could allocate or interpolate as appropriate. This object design enabled variables and whole models to reference each other with user-defined variable names and to perform multidimensional analysis and massive, merely hands editable consolidations.

Trapeze,^[34] a spreadsheet on the Mac, went further and explicitly supported not just table columns, but likewise matrix operators.

Logical spreadsheets [edit]

Spreadsheets that have a formula language based upon logical expressions, rather than arithmetic expressions are known equally logical spreadsheets. Such spreadsheets can be used to reason deductively nigh their cell values.

Programming problems [edit]

Just as the early programming languages were designed to generate spreadsheet printouts, programming techniques themselves have evolved to process tables (as well known as spreadsheets or matrices) of data more efficiently in the figurer itself.

End-user evolution [edit]

Spreadsheets are a popular end-user development tool.^[39] EUD denotes activities or techniques in which people who are not professional developers create automated beliefs and complex data objects without significant noesis of a programming linguistic communication. Many people find it easier to perform calculations in spreadsheets than by writing the equivalent sequential program. This is due to several traits of spreadsheets.

• They use spatial relationships to define programme relationships. Humans have highly developed intuitions almost spaces, and of dependencies between items. Sequential programming usually requires typing line afterwards line of text, which must be read slowly and advisedly to be understood and changed.
• They are forgiving, allowing fractional results and functions to work. One or more parts of a plan can work correctly, even if other parts are unfinished or broken. This makes writing and debugging programs easier, and faster. Sequential programming usually needs every plan line and character to exist correct for a program to run. 1 error normally stops the whole program and prevents whatsoever result. Though this user-friendliness is benefit of spreadsheet development, information technology oftentimes comes with increased risk of errors.
• Modernistic spreadsheets let for secondary notation. The program tin can exist annotated with colors, typefaces, lines, etc. to provide visual cues about the meaning of elements in the programme.
• Extensions that allow users to create new functions can provide the capabilities of a functional language.^[forty]
• Extensions that allow users to build and apply models from the domain of machine learning.^{[41] [42]}
• Spreadsheets are versatile. With their boolean logic and graphics capabilities, even electronic circuit design is possible.^[43]
• Spreadsheets can shop relational data and spreadsheet formulas can express all queries of SQL. There exists a query translator, which automatically generates the spreadsheet implementation from the SQL code.^[44]

Spreadsheet programs [edit]

A "spreadsheet programme" is designed to perform general computation tasks using spatial relationships rather than fourth dimension as the chief organizing principle.

It is oftentimes convenient to remember of a spreadsheet as a mathematical graph, where the nodes are spreadsheet cells, and the edges are references to other cells specified in formulas. This is often chosen the dependency graph of the spreadsheet. References between cells can take advantage of spatial concepts such as relative position and absolute position, every bit well as named locations, to make the spreadsheet formulas easier to understand and manage.

Spreadsheets usually effort to automatically update cells when the cells depend on change. The earliest spreadsheets used simple tactics like evaluating cells in a particular guild, only modern spreadsheets calculate following a minimal recomputation order from the dependency graph. Later spreadsheets also include a limited power to propagate values in reverse, altering source values so that a particular answer is reached in a sure cell. Since spreadsheet cell formulas are non generally invertible, though, this technique is of somewhat limited value.

Many of the concepts common to sequential programming models accept analogs in the spreadsheet world. For case, the sequential model of the indexed loop is usually represented every bit a table of cells, with similar formulas (normally differing only in which cells they reference).

Spreadsheets have evolved to utilize scripting programming languages like VBA every bit a tool for extensibility across what the spreadsheet language makes piece of cake.

Shortcomings [edit]

While spreadsheets represented a major step forward in quantitative modeling, they have deficiencies. Their shortcomings include the perceived unfriendliness of alpha-numeric cell addresses.^[45]

• Research by ClusterSeven has shown huge discrepancies in the way fiscal institutions and corporate entities understand, manage and law their often vast estates of spreadsheets and unstructured financial information (including comma-separated values (CSV) files and Microsoft Access databases). Ane study in early on 2011 of nearly i,500 people in the Uk found that 57% of spreadsheet users have never received formal training on the spreadsheet parcel they use. 72% said that no internal department checks their spreadsheets for accuracy. Only 13% said that Internal Inspect reviews their spreadsheets, while a mere one% receive checks from their risk department.^[46]
• Spreadsheets can have reliability problems. Research studies gauge that around i% of all formulas in operational spreadsheets are in error.^[47]

Despite the high fault risks oftentimes associated with spreadsheet authorship and use, specific steps can be taken to significantly raise control and reliability by structurally reducing the likelihood of fault occurrence at their source.^[48]

• The practical expressiveness of spreadsheets can be limited unless their modern features are used. Several factors contribute to this limitation. Implementing a complex model on a cell-at-a-time basis requires boring attention to particular. Authors have difficulty remembering the meanings of hundreds or thousands of cell addresses that appear in formulas.

These drawbacks are mitigated past the use of named variables for prison cell designations, and employing variables in formulas rather than cell locations and cell-by-prison cell manipulations. Graphs can be used to show instantly how results are changed by changes in parameter values. The spreadsheet can be made invisible except for a transparent user interface that requests pertinent input from the user, displays results requested by the user, creates reports, and has built-in mistake traps to prompt correct input.^[49]

• Similarly, formulas expressed in terms of cell addresses are difficult to proceed straight and hard to audit. Research shows that spreadsheet auditors who check numerical results and cell formulas observe no more errors than auditors who only check numerical results.^[50] That is another reason to employ named variables and formulas employing named variables.

Specifically, spreadsheets typically contain many copies of the same formula. When the formula is modified, the user has to alter every cell containing that formula. In contrast, most computer languages allow a formula to appear only once in the code and achieve repetition using loops: making them much easier to implement and audit.

• The alteration of a dimension demands major surgery. When rows (or columns) are added to or deleted from a table, i has to accommodate the size of many downstream tables that depend on the table existence changed. In the process, it is oft necessary to move other cells around to brand room for the new columns or rows and to adjust graph data sources. In big spreadsheets, this can be extremely time-consuming.^{[51] [52]}
• Adding or removing a dimension is and then hard, one more often than not has to start over. The spreadsheet every bit a prototype forces ane to make up one's mind on dimensionality right of the beginning of 1'due south spreadsheet creation, even though information technology is ofttimes most natural to brand these choices after one'south spreadsheet model has matured. The desire to add together and remove dimensions also arises in parametric and sensitivity analyses.^{[51] [52]}
• Collaboration in authoring spreadsheet formulas tin can be difficult when such collaboration occurs at the level of cells and jail cell addresses.

Other problems associated with spreadsheets include:^{[53] [54]}

• Some sources advocate the use of specialized software instead of spreadsheets for some applications (budgeting, statistics)^{[55] [56] [57]}
• Many spreadsheet software products, such equally Microsoft Excel^[58] (versions prior to 2007) and OpenOffice.org Calc^[59] (versions prior to 2008), have a capacity limit of 65,536 rows by 256 columns (2¹⁶ and 2⁸ respectively). This can present a problem for people using very large datasets, and may result in data loss. In spite of the time passed, a recent instance is the loss of COVID-19 positives in the British statistics for September and October 2020.^[60]
• Lack of auditing and revision control. This makes it difficult to determine who changed what and when. This can crusade problems with regulatory compliance. Lack of revision control greatly increases the risk of errors due to the inability to track, isolate and test changes fabricated to a certificate.^{[ commendation needed ]}
• Lack of security. Spreadsheets lack controls on who tin encounter and change detail data. This, combined with the lack of auditing above, tin make it easy for someone to commit fraud.^[61]
• Because they are loosely structured, it is easy for someone to introduce an error, either accidentally or intentionally, past entering information in the wrong place or expressing dependencies among cells (such equally in a formula) incorrectly.^{[51] [62] [63]}
• The results of a formula (example "=A1*B1") applies simply to a single cell (that is, the prison cell the formula is located in—in this case perhaps C1), fifty-fifty though it tin can "excerpt" data from many other cells, and even real-time dates and actual times. This means that to cause a similar calculation on an array of cells, an virtually identical formula (only residing in its own "output" cell) must be repeated for each row of the "input" array. This differs from a "formula" in a conventional computer programme, which typically makes i calculation that information technology applies to all the input in turn. With electric current spreadsheets, this forced repetition of near-identical formulas can have detrimental consequences from a quality balls standpoint and is often the cause of many spreadsheet errors. Some spreadsheets have array formulas to accost this issue.
• Trying to manage the sheer book of spreadsheets that may exist in an arrangement without proper security, audit trails, the unintentional introduction of errors, and other items listed above tin can become overwhelming.

While in that location are congenital-in and third-party tools for desktop spreadsheet applications that accost some of these shortcomings, awareness, and employ of these is generally depression. A good example of this is that 55% of Capital market professionals "don't know" how their spreadsheets are audited; only 6% invest in a 3rd-party solution^[64]

Spreadsheet chance [edit]

Spreadsheet adventure is the risk associated with deriving a materially wrong value from a spreadsheet awarding that will be utilized in making a related (usually numerically based) decision. Examples include the valuation of an asset, the determination of financial accounts, the calculation of medicinal doses, or the size of a load-bearing beam for structural engineering science. The risk may arise from inputting erroneous or fraudulent data values, from mistakes (or incorrect changes) within the logic of the spreadsheet or the omission of relevant updates (eastward.grand., out of appointment exchange rates). Some single-case errors take exceeded Usa$one billion.^{[65] [66]} Because spreadsheet chance is principally linked to the actions (or inaction) of individuals it is divers as a sub-category of operational risk.

Despite this, research^[67] carried out by ClusterSeven revealed that effectually half (48%) of c-level executives and senior managers at firms reporting almanac revenues over £50m said there were either no usage controls at all or poorly practical transmission processes over the employ of spreadsheets at the firms.^{[67] [68]}

In 2013 Thomas Herndon, a graduate student of economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst found major coding flaws in the spreadsheet used by the economists Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff in Growth in a Time of Debt, a very influential 2010 journal article. The Reinhart and Rogoff article was widely used as justification to drive 2010–2013 European austerity programs.^[69]

Come across besides [edit]

• Aspect-value arrangement
• Comparing of spreadsheet software
• Moving and copying in spreadsheets
• Listing of spreadsheet software
• Model audit

Notes [edit]

1. ^ This may be a backronym, as "LANPAR is too a portmanteau of the developers' surnames, "Landau" and "Pardo".

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

Look up spreadsheet in Wiktionary, the free lexicon.

• comp.apps.spreadsheets FAQ by Russell Schulz
• Extending the Concept of Spreadsheet past Jocelyn Paine
• Spreadsheet at Curlie
• Spreadsheet – Its First Computerization (1961–1964) by Richard Mattessich
• CICS history and introduction of IBM 3270 by Bob Yelavich
• Autoplan & Autotab article by Creative Karma
• Spreadsheets in Scientific discipline

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet

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